The Declaration of Independence Essay Example for Free

The Declaration of Independence Essay The Declaration of Independence maintained that the purpose of government is to protect their â€Å"unalienable rights,† chief among them being â€Å"life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. † As such, government is merely an institution crafted by the people, whose existence is entirely contingent upon the people it is designed to serve towards these ends. Therefore it is the responsibility of citizens to be ever vigilant of this government because the Declaration explicitly states that its authority comes from â€Å"the consent of the governed. † Should this government prove to be dysfunctional with regards to the functions it was created for, it becomes the right of these ‘governed’ to abolish the government and institute a new one in its place that fulfills the abovementioned mandate of protecting those rights. It is this fundamental conception of the function of government that maintains relevance in the 21st century moreso, as has been said ad infinitum ad nauseum, in the wake of 9/11. In an attempt to address the security of the nation-space, the government has taken measures that have effectively diminished personal liberties if not curtailed them entirely. As such, the functions of the government have increasingly turned towards protection of the state for its own sake, at the expense of the inalienable rights of citizens. In effect, the government leans towards self-preservation, towards a rigid but abstract notion of patriotism and nationalism and away from empowering those institutions under its jurisdiction whose primary aim is the self-fulfillment of its citizens. More of the budget is geared away from citizen welfare and more towards the military and state controls. This is not to suggest that the government must be abolished with the sheer force of tumultuous revolt, but rather that citizens recognize this disheartening trend and take action to reorient it back towards the purposes it was designed for in the first place. It is through re-awakening interactions that make for a healthy democracy, including the ballot box and beyond it in critical discourse.

Effects of the Soviet on the Cuban Missile Crisis

Effects of the Soviet on the Cuban Missile Crisis The Cuban Missile Crisis:Â  Was it the Fault of the Soviets? Introduction The required brevity of this essay precludes the possibility of giving any kind of narrative of the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis; however we will begin with a brief analysis of the origins of the crisis before proceeding to analyse who was to blame and eventually concluding that there were faults on both sides, although more on Kennedy’s than Khrushchev’s. President Kennedy had come to office in 1960 under the generally held, but entirely inaccurate belief that America had far fewer missiles than the Soviets.[1] Almost immediately upon election he committed the US to a massive increase in the US’ nuclear missile arsenal. Even when it was admitted that the US in fact had far more missiles than the Soviet Union, the building program did not slow down (Kahan Long, 1972, 565). Giglio has argued that the crisis arose out of a personal vendetta of the Kennedy’s against Castro himself (Giglio, 1991, 190). It is long established that the CIA were engaged in attempts to assassinate Castro.[2] Robert Kennedy even held responsible for these operations for a time (Chang Kornbluh, 1992, 20-23). The American trade embargo on Cuba and the growing belief that an invasion was imminent led the Soviet Union to threaten war if any such event should occur (Giglio, 1991, 190). We can say, with hindsight, that direct invasion was unlikely given the disastrous Bay of Pigs incident, however this was certainly not clear to the Soviets at the time. Bohlen and Thompson have noted that the Russians had never before placed nuclear weapons outside of their territory and that placing them in Cuba could have been seen by the Americans as a direct threat to their national security. The Russians now had a first strike capability on America’s very doorstep with the ability to strike anywhere at will. This was a threat that Kennedy simply could not ignore (Beschloss, 1991 424). From the Soviets perspective, they may have seen the positioning of missiles in Cuba as a way of balancing the strategic superiority the US had over them in such weapons. Who was to blame? John and Robert Kennedy, Nikita Khrushchev, Adlai Stevenson, Kenneth Keating and Dean Acheson all played significant roles in creating or exacerbating the crisis. It is beyond doubt that Khrushchev had made the critical decision to place missiles in Cuba; but Kennedy’s campaign to overthrow Castro had helped convince the Russian Premier that they were needed to act as a deterrent to American invasion. Keating and other Republicans had forced Kennedy to promise the American electorate that he would resist any attempts to put missiles on Cube, compelling Kennedy to action in October 62. Even Stevenson, whose ideas and policies throughout the crisis were generally sound, had contributed by laying the foundation in 61 for the Cubans to be ejected from the OAS (White, 1996, 232). External and Internal factors were no doubt in operation during the build up to the crisis. External factors were certainly of vital importance. Khrushchev almost certainly believed that placing missiles in Cuba would close the strategic gap that he knew to exist; it would also help appease the Chinese and provide a bargaining chip in negotiations with the west (White, 1996, 233). Kennedy’s policy in Cuba was not new. It was underpinned by the standard assumptions of American Cold War policy: monolithism, the domino effect and the lessons of the 1930’s Garthoff, 1989 43ff). Kennedy felt that Castro was Khrushchev’s puppet, and far to close for comfort. He also believed that this extension of Soviet influence was unacceptable and could lead, in a domino like fashion, to a whole series of communist revolutions in Latin America. The evident failure of appeasement towards Hitler in the 1930’s demonstrated that a touch stance was required. The internal factors that contributed to the crisis have generally been considered of lesser importance by historians; in particular, on the American side, Kennedy’s relationship with the liberals in his government. If JFK had been more receptive, he would probably have rejected the Bay of Pigs proposals. He also likely would not have organised such a concerted campaign against Castro in 1961 and 62. A more liberal Cuban policy would not have increased Khrushchev’s fears over the likelihood of invasion, making deployment of missiles far less likely. Accepting Stevenson’s proposal to offer the Soviets a negotiated settlement at the same time as the blockade was announced could have brought about a quicker and safer resolution to the crisis (White, 1996, 234). Kennedy’s relationship with Republicans was also significant. In order to prevent accusations of weakness, he had told the American public that the Soviet build up in Cuba did not represent a significant threat because they had not included missiles. In 1962 when that situation changed, Kennedy had little choice but to respond swiftly. It also ensured that Kennedy’s response could not be one of toleration (White, 1996, 235). During Kennedy’s campaign for the Presidency in 1960 he had criticised Eisenhower for his failure to prevent the rise of Castro and had pledged to remove him from power if elected (Dinerstein, 1976, 21ff). Khrushchev’s belief that, after the Bay of Pigs, Kennedy would again try to fulfil his election promise and attempt to remove Castro, this time directly using American military power, was one of the key factors behind Khrushchev’s decision to install warheads on Cuba. It can be argued, therefore, that there was a clear causal link between the 1960 re-election campaign and the missile crisis, with the former helping to bring about the Bay of Pigs, which in turn helped convince Khrushchev of the need to protect Cuba and thus install missiles (White, 1996, 235). Kennedy also believed in the connection between public opinion and policy, this also helped define the approach towards Castro’s Cuba. One of the lessons to be learned from Britain’s appeasement of Hitler in the late 1930’s was that the public can, at times, exert an unhealthy influence over the pursuit of the national interest. In the case of 1930’s Britain, various pressure groups acted to prevent an increase in military spending. Kennedy, with these lessons in mind, was drawn towards secret operations that would not trigger a public debate. Domestic concerns were also of paramount importance to Khrushchev and certainly contributed to his decision to deploy missiles on Cuba. The Soviet Premiere evidently felt that Russian nuclear weapons in the Caribbean would allow his to justifiably make the argument to the rest of the Soviet ruling class that they significantly improved the Soviet strategic position and that it would therefore be safe to resume the program of cutting troop numbers in order that funds could be diverted away from military spending and towards the civilian economy, which even then was not in a good condition. Installing missiles in Cuba would allow Khrushchev to adopt a strategy of brinkmanship with Kennedy. Kennedy’s public assertion of nuclear superiority (however true) had seriously undermined Khrushchev’s position in the autumn of 1961. Brinkmanship was essentially a way of achieving foreign policy goals without the application of any actual resources: Khrushchev could, therefore, essen tially concentrate on domestic rather than defence needs with his limited resources. Kennedy and Khrushchev were jointly responsible for the crisis. Khrushchev’s decision to install missiles on Cuba was an un-necessary risk. He could have secured the Cuban dictators position, and appeased the Chinese at the same time, be moving troops and conventional arms to the island; although this would have detracted from his domestic agenda. Faced with the prospect of a military clash with the Soviet Union it is highly likely that Kennedy would have abandoned any plans to again attach Cuba (White, 1996, 236). Kennedy was equally culpable for the crisis. Before Khrushchev ever ordered missiles to Cuba, Kennedy had ordered the CIA sponsored invasion, ordered various assassination attempts on Castro, installed a tight embargo on trade to and from the island, approved working towards Cuba’s removal from the OAS and approved large scale military operations in the region (Nash, 1997, 117ff). That Kennedy appeared not to realise that these actions would annoy the Soviets seems, to say the least, naive. He also failed to realise, or perhaps did not care, that his massive increases in defence spending coupled with public proclamations of superiority would trouble the Russians. Although Kennedy and Khrushchev shared, to varying degrees, the responsibility for causing the crisis, they also much share the credit for defusing it. They managed to avoid clashes on the high seas, and in a letter sent to Kennedy on October 26th, Khrushchev showed that he was willing to be the first to make concessions in order to secure a peaceful resolution. Kennedy on the other hand was able to astutely and effectively respond to the two conflicting letters send by Khrushchev on the 26th and 27th of October (White, 1996, 238). All too often Kennedy’s Cuban policies have been prone to oversimplification, much like assessments of his Presidency in general. His record on Cuba was neither excellent in a way that his supporters claim, nor poor as per his detractors Kennedy’s pre crisis approach to Castro was misguided; he also tinkered with but never fully engaged with as examination of America’s cold war position (White, 1996, 238). Conclusion Khrushchev’s decision in 1962 to install nuclear weapons on Cuba was almost certainly not required to fulfil his various foreign, domestic and defence policy objectives. His belief that American military intelligence would fail to detect the missiles on Cuba before they were fully operational was foolish and mistaken. Most importantly of all, Khrushchev should have realised that the new American administration would never tolerate Soviet missiles on Cuba, able to deliver a first strike capability to the Soviet Union. The decision made confrontation inevitable. Kennedy on the other hand was far more culpable. His approach to Castro before the crisis was misguided to say the least. The assassination attempts code named project Mongoose, his aborted invasion, trade embargo etc. as noted above all smack of bullying and of a deep seated hatred. He repeatedly implemented policies towards Cuba that were unnecessarily hostile. His belief that a communist Cuba would lead to the spread of communism throughout the Latin American world smacks of paranoia. He failed to take advantage of opportunities before the crisis arose to improve relations with Havana and Moscow and he failed to listen to his liberal advisors like Stevenson. As with most international problems throughout history, the fault does not lay with just one side. The leaders of both nations have to take some of the blame but it seems evident that Khrushchev was largely acting in response to American aggression and was the first to offer a negotiated peace that would allow the situation to be defused. Kennedy should also be praised in the final analysis for allowing the Soviets to save face by negotiating away the American Jupiter missiles in Turkey (Nash, 1997, 150-176). The crisis need never have arisen in the first place, but it appears largely to be America acting and the Soviets reacting. Bibliography M. P. Beschloss, Kennedy V. Khrushchev: The Crisis Years (Boston 1991) L. Chang P. Kornbluh, The Cuban Missile Crisis: A National Security Archive Documents Reader (New York 1992) H. S. Dinerstein, The Making of a Missile Crisis: October 1962 (London 1976) R. L. Garthoff, Reflections on the Cuban Missile Crisis (Washington D. C. 1989) J. N. Giglio, The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (Kansas 1991). R. Helsman, The Cuban Missile Crisis: Struggle Over Policy (London 1996) J. H. Kahan A. K. Long, The Cuban Missile Crisis: A Study of its Strategic Context, Political Science Quarterly, 87 (1972) P. Nash, The Other Missiles of October (London 1997) S. M. Stern, Averting ‘The Final Failure’: John F. Kennedy and the Secret Cuban Missile Crisis Meetings (Stanford, California, 2003) M. J. White, The Cuban Missile Crisis (London 1996) 1 Footnotes [1] The US in fact had 17 times more warheads than the Soviet Union, (Giglio, 1991, 192.) [2] The so called operation Mongoose.

Electrical Engineering Essay examples -- Graduate Admissions Essays

As a graduate student, I will undertake research and coursework in Electrical Engineering to enhance my competencies in this field. I intend to complete my master's degree in order to pursue my doctorate. The research that I am most interested in pursuing at Northeastern University surrounds the optical properties of MEMS devices, and the development of substrate-based fast electro-optical interfaces. My interest in this area stems from my undergraduate study in MEMs development for tri-axial accelerometers. Â   Engineering has been a key interest of mine since childhood. While still in grade school I enjoyed listening to my father, an electrical engineer, teach me about advances in technology, and was always eager to hear more. I was introduced to my first computer at the age of five, and have loved interacting with them ever since. My decision to study engineering as a career was no surprise to those who knew me. Â   In college I found that I was always studying something I enjoyed. I believe it is because I enjoy my life and my work that I have been successful. Spending hours in the laboratory is not something that I dread, but instead I take pride in my work and its successful completion. One example of this that is still fresh in my mind is the successful design of a fully functional microprocessor in the Xilinx environment. All told, the project took over 150 hours of each design-team member's time. However, I did not look on it as a drain, but an experience for learning and a focus for my professional and technical development. When we finished the project we felt the sense of worth and pride in completion of a task that was once above our level of knowledge. Â   Pursuing a graduate degree ... ...MEMs design, I hope to advance my understanding. Through research at the graduate level, it is my hope to become familiar with, and innovate the design of MEMs Optics in hopes of creating a reliable and practical MEMs Electro-Optical Interface for use in consumer electronics. It is my hope, that through my research, optical waveguides for intradevice communication might be realized. Â   Finally, my intent to pursue graduate study is laid plain. Study of MEMs optics is my intended focus, and I am committed to my goal. In pursuing a doctoral degree, I have closely analyzed myself to determine the reasons for my previous successes and my goals for the future. I have found that I do and have always enjoyed engineering, and that I have a strong desire to pursue my study further. I am prepared to commit myself to that study, and achieve what I have set out to do.

Cystic Fibrosis Essay examples -- essays research papers

Cystic Fibrosis Cystic Fibrosis is a genetic disease that causes the body’s lungs to generate a different type of mucus than a non-infected body would. The contaminated lungs will produce mucus that is thick and adhesive which clogs the lungs and leads to an unpleasant and abhorrent lung infection. CF also interferes with the pancreas, disallowing the digestive enzymes from breaking down and absorbing food in the intestine. This can result in low nutrition, feeble growth, excessive sweat production, difficulties in breathing, and sometimes lung disease. When producing extra sweat and mucus, the body loses salt. If too much salt is lost, it can cause abnormal heart rhythms, disturbance of minerals in the blood, and perhaps, shock. Children, as well as Adults can also be affected by this disease. Some afflicted infants usually show symptoms of the disease in its early life stages. Yet, others may experience the horrid and hazardous conditions later in life. The types of infections range differe ntly between each person. There are more than a thousand mutations of the CF gene.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Considering that Cystic Fibrosis is a genetic disorder, it can only be inherited by an individuals DNA. The only possible way to transmit the mutation to the offspring is if both parents are either carriers or already infected by the disease. Once two carriers produce an offspring, there is a twenty-five percent chance that their child will have Cystic Fibrosis; a fifty perce...

Extraterrestial Influence :: miscellaneous

Extraterrestial Influence All our science, measured against reality, is primitive and childlike and yet it is the most precious thing we have. -Albert Einstein INTRODUCTION There are many things in this world that go unexplained. Not anymore, it was all aliens, everything you can’t figure out like, â€Å"Where does one sock go when I do the laundry?†, and â€Å"How do you get the caramel into the Caramilk bar?† Aliens. Earth has been profoundly impacted by extraterrestrials in its short history. Everything from supplying life-giving chemicals and wiping out the dinosaurs with meteorites to influencing human culture and evolution. The whole world is filled with evidence of extraterrestrials, though it is usually denied and ignored by governments and academics. This essay will provide a brief analysis of extraterrestrial events or evidence thereof the were especially significant. THE BEGINNING OF LIFE Evolutionary theory suggests that life on earth has been developing for millions of years into more and more complex organisms. These organisms evolved from inorganic molecules through the release of UV, heat and electrical energy in the atmosphere of early Earth. This theory was found to be valid by Stan Miller in 1953, who through a series of tests managed to create some hydrocarbons and amino acids out of chemicals that were present on earth 3.5 billion years ago. These hydrocarbons and amino acids are very susceptible to oxidation and would not exist for very long in an oxygen based environment. Though there was very little oxygen in earth’s atmosphere at the time, the large amount of energy present would have easily electrolyzed some water and produced oxygen gas, which is bad for the amino acids. A much more likely place for amino acids and hydrocarbons to develop would be in large dust clouds in space, such as the one that condensed to form our solar system. Evidence fo r this theory comes from the many carbonaceous chondrite meteorites recovered (these same life giving meteors have also led to many mass extinctions in earth’s history). A NASA research group examined one such meteorite in 1970 and found a higher concentration of amino acids and hydrocarbons than are present on earth today (Kvenvolden, K., Lawless, J., Pering, K., Peterson, E., Flores, J., Ponnamperuma, C., Kaplan, I.R., Moore, C., 197). In addition the amino acids had a higher concentration of L enantiomers than R-enantiomers, as is seen on earth (Chyba, 1997). This seems to suggest that the basic chemicals for life were derived extraterrestrially.

Vygotsky’s Socio Cultural Learning Applied to Teaching

VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO – CULTURAL LEARNING INTRODUCTION Who is Lev Vygotsky? Birth: Lev Vygotsky was born November 17, 1896 Death: He died June 11, 1934. Vygotsky's Early Life: Lev Vygotsky was born in Orsha, a city in the western region of the Russian Empire. He attended Moscow State University, where he graduated with a degree in law in 1917. He studied a range of topics white attending university, including sociology, linguistics, psychology and philosophy. However, his formal work in psychology did not begin until 1924 when he attended the Institute of Psychology in Moscow and began collaborating with Alexei Leontiev and Alexander Luria.Vygotsky's Career: Lev Vygotsky was a prolific writer, publishing six books on psychology topics over a ten year period. His interests were quite diverse, but often centered on topics of child development and education. He also explored such topics as the psychology of art and language development. Lev Vygotsky is considered a seminal thin ker in psychology, and much of his work is still being discovered and explored today. While he was a contemporary of Skinner, Pavlov and Piaget, his work never attained their level of eminence during his lifetime.Part of this was because his work was often criticized by the Communist Party in Russia, and so his writings were largely inaccessible to the Western world. His premature death at age 38 also contributed to his obscurity. Despite this, his work has continued to grow in influence since his death, particularly in the fields of developmental and educational psychology. http://psychology. about. com/od/profilesmz/p/vygotsky. htm What is Sociocultural Theory? http://www. docslide. com/vygotskys-sociocultural-theory/This theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live. Sociocultural theory states that children’s learning and cognitive development is a result of social interactions with more knowledgeable others and their culture . Children learn behavior and ways of thinking from interactions with others. Sociocultural theory is an emerging theory in psychology that looks at the important contributions that society makes to individual development. This theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live.Vygotsky explained areas in how social processes form learning and thinking. The areas are: * The Social Sources of Individual thinking * The role of Cultural tools in Cognitive Development * The role of Language in cognitive development We will also discuss how we can apply Vygotsky’s theory to teaching through: * Assisted learning – Scaffolding and Zone of Proximal Development. The Social Sources of Individual thinking Vygotsky believed that the social source of individual thinking is their interactions with people who are more capable or advanced in their thinking.He assumed that â€Å"every function in a child’s cultural development appears t wice. † First, it appears in an interpsychological way and then in an intrapsychological way. Interpsychological means on the social level – interaction with others. Intrapsychological means on the individual level or inside the child. Higher mental processes first come about through a co-constructed process between people during shared activities and then later on it is internalized by the learner.For example, the solving of problems during class group discussions, a student may not know how to solve the problem before but after the group discussion and the help provided by all members of the group, he is able to solve the problem on his own. In other words, the steps of solving the problem have been grasped by the individual and he is now able to solve the problem on his own. This problem solving process has been adopted by the learner and now it has become part of the learner’s cognitive development. So for Vygotsky, social interaction is not merely an influen ce on a person but also a staircase to higher mental processes.Vygotsky unlike Piaget believed that the more knowledgeable others fosters the cognitive development of children because of the children’s interactions with such people who are more advanced in thinking, experiences and behavior. These people can be their parents and their teachers. Cultural Tools and Cognitive Development mortempo. net donsmaps. com What are cultural tools? These consist of the real tools and the symbolic tools that allow people to communicate, solve problems, think and acquire new knowledge.The real cultural tools can be the abacus which is commonly used by the Chinese, rulers, printing presses, scales for measuring weight and modern tools such as what we mainly use – computers, cell phones, calendars, clocks or wrist watchers and the internet to name a few. The symbolic tools can be numbers and the mathematical system. The Roman numerals are an example of a symbolic tool that is widely u sed today. Sign language and Braille system for the blind, maps, works of art, signs and codes and language which is the most integral part of acquiring knowledge and learning which contributes greatly to cognitive development.These tools are used by adults in a day to day basis and are taught to the young and passed down to younger generations. Today, people use modern technology such as computers and the internet to find information that they need and they acquire new knowledge from such real tools. Vygotsky emphasized that these tools are what the young use to make sense of what is around them. He also believed that higher mental processes are accomplished through the help of language, signs and symbols. He concentrated mainly on language which is a common factor to all societies.The Role of language In the case of language acquisition, children learn to associate sound with meaning or actions. Talking is one of the earliest cognitive developments in a child – How a child associates the sound with an action or what something means. Another way is through private speech. Have you watched a child play with a toy and talk to himself at the same time? Studies have found that children who frequently talk to themselves at play or any other time learn challenging tasks more effectively than children who seldom use private speech.Later on in life, private speech is no more said out loud but becomes silent. For example, when trying to fix something or when you are attempting a critical thinking question do you silently talk to yourself during the process? Or when you are in bad situation some people mutter swears to themselves either out loud or in silence. These are just examples of private speech and how it relates to cognitive development. Furthermore, communication with more knowledgeable others are done through language. Here is where the role of the teacher, parents and peers comes in.They serve as guides and mentors in providing the support and informa tion that the learner needs in intellectual development. All these guidance and support is communicated through language. But we have to be mindful that not all learning takes place through talking. In some cultures, observance of a skilled performance is sufficient enough to guide the learner. For example, mat weaving, dancing, and sewing involve more observance than relating myths and legends through speech. These are some ways according to Vygotsky, in which language helps in cognitive development and learning.Implications of Vygotsky’s theory to Teaching The Zone of Proximal Developmentwww. glogster. comThis is an implication of Vygotsky’s theory. Vygotsky believed that children’s learning take place when they are working within this zone. What is this zone of proximal development? It is the level of development immediately above the present level of the learner. Tasks within this zone of proximal development are ones that a learner cannot tackle alone but o nly with temporary assistance from teachers and peers who are known to be more knowledgeable.This zone describes tasks that a learner has not yet mastered but will master later on after all the assistance that will be provided. This is where the idea of scaffolding comes in to place. Scaffoldingurpages. com. auScaffolding is the assistance provided by teachers, peers and parents to the learner. This is just the support provided to the learner at early stages but as the learner is more capable the learner is left to tackle the problem or the task alone. For example, the teacher can give problems for the students to solve.Before the students are able to solve the problems, the teacher will be assisting the students by showing them the steps that need to be taken in to consideration in solving the problem. Once that assistance is given, the teacher then leaves students to solve the problem on their own. Once a student gets the answer wrong the teacher then assists the student again. So here the teacher intervenes only when the need arises but does not solve the problems for them. Application of Vygotsky’s theory to Teachingoisbengaluru. blogspot. omTeachers should allow for group activities where more capable students are grouped together with the less capable ones. * Apply scaffolding in teaching methods so that students learn to be responsible and not be spoon fed most of the time by the teacher. * Reciprocal teaching – where the teacher starts up a discussion by asking questions on materials that require reading and then turn over the responsibility of the discussion to the students * Teacher must prepare a lesson plan which includes activities that not only can be performed individually but which involves the help of others. Allow for activities where students interact with each other such as games, group work, class picnics and social nights etc. This will help develop their social skills and self-confidenceConclusionIn conclusion, Vygotskyâ₠¬â„¢s theory is widely practiced today. He believed that children learn through their interactions with more skillful people – this can be their peers, parents and teachers. He also believed that culture shapes the mind of people and their view towards what is around them.Cultural tools help people make sense of the world in which they live. Language is one such tool in which contributes greatly to cognitive development. Providing the idea of scaffolding in teaching will help students to be responsible independent learners. Therefore, taking in to consideration Vygotsky’s theory will help us as future teachers to be aware of what teaching methods that we should implement and how we should deal with students effectively in regards to their learning and task performance and also how to enhance their social skills. | | Reference * Slavin, R, ‘Educational Psychology – Theory and Practice,’ 7ed(2003), Pearson Education Limited, USA, pgs 43-47. * Woolwort h, A, ‘Educational Psychology,’8ed(2001), Allyn and Bacon, Pearson Education Co, USA, pgs 44-51 * https://sites. google. com/site/jfielportfolio/philosophystatement * www. docslide. com * http://psychology. about. com/od/profilesmz/p/vygotsky. htm * www. glogster. com * www. donsmaps. com * www. oisbengaluru. blogspot. com * www. urpages. com. au * Lecture notes

Instrumental Conditioning

When one hears the term instrumental (operant) conditioning they tend to immediately think of the â€Å"Skinner-Box†. Skinner conducted classic experiments where he trained rats and pigeons to press a lever in order to obtain a food reward. The experimenter would choose a suited output to pair it with a consequence. After a training period, the animals would show the behavior (BH, e.g. pressing the lever) even in absence of any reward, if the BH-US association had been memorized. Instrumental conditioning differs from classical conditioning in that it operates on the environment and refers to the modification of voluntary behavior. For the purposes of this paper I will evaluate the application of instrumental conditioning to learning how to use the toilet (potty-training). I will describe the process of potty-training, and compare and contrast the concepts of positive and negative reinforcement as they relate to potty-training. I will explain the role of reward and punishment in potty-training as well as explain which form of instrumental conditioning would be most effective in potty-training. What is Instrumental Conditioning? â€Å"Instrumental conditioning is a process by which humans and animals learn to behave in such a way as to obtain rewards and avoid punishments. It is also the name for the paradigm in experimental psychology by which such learning and action selection processes are studied† (Staddon & Cerutti, 2003). All behavior is guided by consequences. Dogs beg/perform tricks for treats; politicians study poll results in order to steer the directions of their campaigns. Instrumental conditioning similarly is goal-oriented behavior. The selecting consequences that guide operant conditioning are of two kinds: behavior-enhancing (reinforcers) and behavior-suppressing (punishers). The most important factor in instrumental conditioning is the consequence of the response. â€Å"Responding often seems to be under exquisite control of the reinforcement conditions: Larger and tastier rewards provoke more vigorous response, delayed rewards weaken responding, and satiation of drive leads to a reduction in responding† (Terry, 2009). This consequence takes place because of an arranged contingency (relationship) between the occurrence of the response and the delivery of the reinforcer. The response is â€Å"instrumental† in acquiring the reinforcer, which is the reason this type of conditioning is referred to as instrumental conditioning. The response in turn â€Å"operates† on the environment causing a kind of change which is why it is also known as operant conditioning. Instrumental Conditioning and Potty-Training The Process of Potty-Training. Potty-training—the process of training a young child to use the toilet. Children typically begin to exhibit signs of readiness between the ages of 12 to 18 months and the process is usually fully completed by the time the child reaches 4 years old. Generally it takes longer to learn to stay dry during the night, however most children have mastered this by age 4. Cultural factors also play a role in determining the appropriate age of readiness for potty-training, with Americans usually beginning training later than other cultures (Paul, 2008). Potty-training is a mutual activity requiring cooperation, understanding and agreement between the child and the caregiver. The best methods emphasize consistency and positive reinforcement (over punishment) in order to make it a pleasant experience for the child. Research suggests that around 18 months old is the ideal time to start training due to the child's eagerness to please his/her parents. Positive and Negative Reinforcement. Positive reinforcement refers to the presence of a response-to-reinforcer relationship. â€Å"In positive reinforcement, the reinforcer is contingent on performance of the instrumental response† (Terry, 2009). Each action is followed by an outcome or consequence. Negative reinforcement involves particular behaviors being strengthened (increased) by the consequence of stopping or avoiding a negative condition. It is often confused with punishment, but they are very different. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior whereas punishment weakens (decreases) behavior because a negative condition is introduced as a consequence of the behavior. For example, driving in rush hour traffic is a negative condition for most people. One day they decide to leave home a little earlier, and avoid running into the heavy traffic. They leave home at the same time the next day and again avoid heavy traffic. Their behavior of leaving home earlier is strengthened by the consequence of the avoidance of heavy traffic. Positive and Negative Reinforcement as they Relate to Potty-Training. According to Terry (2009) when teaching our children we most often tell them the rules between behaviors and consequences. In some instances the contingencies are simply left for the subject (child) to discover on his/her own. In potty-training, the child must discover what response is necessary to stay dry and receive a reward. Positive reinforcement is the basic practice of rewarding a child for displaying a desired behavior, such as using the potty. The most successful method is to find what your particular child likes most of all, which for the majority of children is either a treat or a toy. When your child acts as desired you use positive reinforcement by rewarding him or her with this highly preferred item as close to the behavior as possible. Add in praise and positive reinforcement has been achieved. The main reason positive reinforcement works so well for potty-training is the way in which a child learns– through association. In contrast, children are not in a rush to move from diapers to using the potty on their own. New behaviors are seldom if ever, accomplished perfectly the first few times. During this time there will be mistakes. That is what learning is all about. When negative reinforcement is used for mistakes then the child learns that new growth experiences should be avoided at all costs, no matter what the new growth opportunity is. Negative reinforcement will likely cause negative outcomes not only in potty training, but in the way the child grasps future experiences. The Role of Reward and Punishment in Potty-Training Rewards. There are many different types of rewards that can be used to motivate toddlers to potty-train. What is most important is that the reward be given immediately following any successful attempt to use a potty. The best rewards are verbal praise, however some may wish to use a small treat as a reward. Positively responding to the child's achievement shows the child that you approve and support them. Positive attention increases the chance of the child repeating the behavior. Rewards and verbal praise should be easy, quick, and inexpensive. Rewards should be given immediately, are not used in place of praise (social reinforcement), used specially for potty-training and not made available any other time, given for the tasks the child can already manage. As the child is managing new skills, praise should be continued and other types of rewards gradually reduced. Punishments. Punishment should not be used if a child has an accident. Some children become upset and frustrated while potty-training so it may help to use clever phrases like â€Å"That silly pee pee just wouldn't wait for the potty, let's see if we can catch it the next time†. Caregivers should remain calm and relaxed rather than punitive when potty-training because it is supposed to be a fun and educational experience. In my own quest to potty-train my children, I have found positive reinforcement to be the most effective training method. The times I got upset and showed anger in response to accidents only served to frighten them and discourage them from trying again. The Most Effective Form of Instrumental Conditioning in Potty-Training In my opinion, the most effective form of instrumental conditioning in potty-training is the use of positive reinforcement so that the child learns to generalize his/her behavior across situations. Positive reinforcement gives the child the courage and confidence s/he needs to be able to use the potty not only in the home/caregiver setting, but in other places as well, thus generalizing his/her behavior. â€Å"The potential strengthening effects of a reinforcer are usually confounded with its reward or incentive effects, both of which lead to improved performance† (Terry, 2009). In other words, the more positive and frequent the praise (and other rewards), the more likely the child is to repeat the desired behavior. Conclusion Instrumental conditioning is dependent on people to act upon their environment and their behavior is subsequently shaped by the response their behavior solicits. Those responses that evoke an increased state of satisfaction are generally repeated as opposed to responses that render a person dissatisfied are likely to decrease. A vital factor in instrumental conditioning is the concept of positive and negative reinforcement. In potty-training a child, the use of positive reinforcement is the most highly effective form of motivation as it increases the likelihood of them repeating desired behavior. In closing, I have evaluated the application of instrumental conditioning to learning how to use the toilet (potty-training). I have described the process of potty-training, and compared and contrasted the concepts of positive and negative reinforcement as they relate to potty-training. I have explained the role of reward and punishment in potty-training as well as explained which form of instrumental conditioning would be most effective in potty-training.